Customer Perception on advertising Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Customer Perception on advertising - Article Example This essay "Perception and Consumer Actions" outlines the effect of the advertising on the customers and how the consumers should be treated through analyzing four different articles. The first article which will be analyzed is titled, â€Å"The Effect of Consumer Perception of Store Attributes on Apparel Store Preferences† reveals the fact that four distinct variables with respect to store preference: type of clothing in stock, outside store appearance, shopping hours, and advertising. Interestingly, the overall level of impact that these attributes had on store preference varied more widely between stores than researchers at first expected (Paulins and Geistfeld 380). This leads the researcher to infer that different expectations could be a primary motivator that helps to further define and constrain these â€Å"secondary† perceptions. Oftentimes, when analysts seek to draw inference upon a specific topic, they already assume that what is being measured is necessarily the primarily important metric. Due to the fact that the reserachers of this particular article approached the issue aware of the fact that other motivations and impacts could have paved the way for the perceptions to be measured in a certain way, this research approach bears a great deal of strength in seeking to define the entire process of consumer perception. A secondary article that will be analyzed and discussed within this brief analysis is that of one entitled â€Å"Advertised versus unexpected next purchase coupons: consumer satisfaction, perceptions of value, and fairness†.

Comparing Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Essay Example for Free

Comparing Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Essay In many works of literature, authors express their viewpoints on society and times in which they live. In the essay â€Å"Self Reliance† by Ralph Waldo Emerson, and the book Walden by Henry David Thoreau, the authors speak out against conformity and materialism in society. Both were romanticism authors during the 1800s. They focused on simplicity and individuality. Both writings can advise teenagers today on the importance of non-conformity and the value of rejecting materialism. In â€Å"Self Reliance†, Emerson discusses being one’s own person and not allowing society to mold someone like a piece of clay; â€Å"Trust thyself† are the exact words he used. Trusting oneself means it is okay to be different if one wants or chooses to be different. It means that one does not have to follow the â€Å"bad† crowd just because everyone else may be choosing to do so. One must know that if they have a good idea and if they believe in that ideaeven if it is different from the norm of societysome people will follow. Emerson also says, â€Å"Whoso would be a man, must be a non-conformist. † This means that to be a true and real person, one must stand up for what they believe in and not allow themselves to be completely changed by society. One must not conform to ways that will cause them to be someone or something outside of their own desires. In the beginning of his writing, Emerson gives us a definition of what he believes defines genius: â€Å"To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men—that is genius. ’ This is his way of saying that every person should know that doing what one thinks is right is the best decision—for him/herself. Every educated person does not conform to society if they do not think that society is going in the right path. Emerson also says that people who have good ideas are misunderstood. In his statement, â€Å"To be great is to be misunderstood†, Emerson is saying that most people who had great ideas in history were misjudged because their ideas were not along with the norms of society’s ideas. Therefore, the societal conformists thought that their ideas were wrong. Emerson gives reasons as to why most people conform to society and try to be the same. He says, â€Å"The other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency†meaning that people might follow society because that is what they are used to doing. They are only doing what they saw happening when they were younger. Their parents and other adults probably did the same thing that most people do todayconform. Emerson disputes this reason in his statement by saying, â€Å"But why should you keep your head over your shoulder? Suppose you should contradict yourself; what then? It seems to be a rule of wisdom never to rely on your memory alone†. Relying on the past could be problematic when someone questions things since most were probably brought up a certain way and are used to doing things the same way, but never really knew a good reason why to conform. In â€Å"Walden†, Thoreau explains how having less material things can simply your life. He says, â€Å"Our inventions are wont to be pretty toys, which distract our attention from serious things† In saying this, he means to own your items and do not let them own you. Thoreau thinks that people have the desire to own things, thus, causing them to have to use all of their time working to own said things. Working all the time means that one can not do the things that one wants to, and that the items that one desires ends up owning them. Through this statement, Thoreau is basically saying that having all these things such as cell phones, iPods, laptops, and televisions are distracting people from the more important things in life such as family, health, and well-being. One of Thoreau’s famous quotes is, â€Å"Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! † This means to make ones’ life as simple as possible. He thinks that the poor are the fortunate ones since they have the least to look after and worry about while the rich have so much to look after that they do not have time for themselves. Living a simple life enables one to be free of commitment and obligations. One only has to worry about one’s self. Both Emerson and Thoreau believe that following one’s own path in life is the best way to go. They believe that being oneself and having a simple life is the best life. Both lessons can be relevant in today’s society by looking at the rural areas that still exist in the United States. Some of these areas still follow the principle of a simple and non-materialistic life. Their lives are not filled with technology and other things that distract most people from life. Young people (myself included), can take away much from Emerson’s and Thoreau’s writings. I could focus on more important things in life rather than wasting lots of time on unnecessary technology such as Facebook and Twitter. We could use technology under moderation and make sure that those things do not take up more time than necessary in our lives.

Sociological Perspectives and the Social Institution of the Family Essa

Sociological Perspectives and the Social Institution of the Family Society is the 'subject' of the social sciences. Generally Speaking society is that complex social organization of human beings that share an identity inhabiting dynamic relationships and a distinctive culture. Members of a society identify themselves through that society and work together with other members to ensure that the rules, generally agreed upon by all members to govern how they relate to each other, are in place. Sociological perspectives are viewpoints from which we study and understand society and its varied mechanics and elements. There are varied sociological perspectives available to social scientists for the purpose of study. What sociological perspective is used depends on the theories and purposes of the one undertaking the study. On Functionalism Functionalism, Conflict theory, and Social Interactionism are sociological perspectives that I believe can be used to study the social unit of the family. Functionalism looks at the family as if it was one mechanical entity with every member of the family taking on a role and a function affecting the whole. For example, the mother is the nurturer, support to the husband in terms of keeping the family together taking on household duties as well as economic duties; the father, traditionally is 'head' of the family whose primary function is to provide for the economic and financial needs of his wife and children; the children are dependent on their parents but take on an important role towards each other and to their parents. What these roles are vary according to the age of the children and their stage in life. In the elder years of their parents, the children are expected to become the nurture... ... for status quo will change dependent on the sway of power at any given time. From this perspective, society is continually changing and power changes hands regularly due to competition. Sources Cited http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-in-Sociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html http://www.ohiostatepress.org/books/Book%20PDFs/Spierenburg%20Social_1.pdf http://www.articlesbase.com/relationships-articles/the-etymology-of-family-through-sociological-perspective-76439.html http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/conflict.htm http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Nelson.htm (Print) Adams, Bert N. & R. A. Sydie (2001), Sociological Theory, Pine Forge Press. Blumer, Herbert (1986), Symbolic interactionism: perspective and method, University of California Press. Sociological Perspectives and the Social Institution of the Family Essa Sociological Perspectives and the Social Institution of the Family Society is the 'subject' of the social sciences. Generally Speaking society is that complex social organization of human beings that share an identity inhabiting dynamic relationships and a distinctive culture. Members of a society identify themselves through that society and work together with other members to ensure that the rules, generally agreed upon by all members to govern how they relate to each other, are in place. Sociological perspectives are viewpoints from which we study and understand society and its varied mechanics and elements. There are varied sociological perspectives available to social scientists for the purpose of study. What sociological perspective is used depends on the theories and purposes of the one undertaking the study. On Functionalism Functionalism, Conflict theory, and Social Interactionism are sociological perspectives that I believe can be used to study the social unit of the family. Functionalism looks at the family as if it was one mechanical entity with every member of the family taking on a role and a function affecting the whole. For example, the mother is the nurturer, support to the husband in terms of keeping the family together taking on household duties as well as economic duties; the father, traditionally is 'head' of the family whose primary function is to provide for the economic and financial needs of his wife and children; the children are dependent on their parents but take on an important role towards each other and to their parents. What these roles are vary according to the age of the children and their stage in life. In the elder years of their parents, the children are expected to become the nurture... ... for status quo will change dependent on the sway of power at any given time. From this perspective, society is continually changing and power changes hands regularly due to competition. Sources Cited http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-in-Sociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html http://www.ohiostatepress.org/books/Book%20PDFs/Spierenburg%20Social_1.pdf http://www.articlesbase.com/relationships-articles/the-etymology-of-family-through-sociological-perspective-76439.html http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/conflict.htm http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Nelson.htm (Print) Adams, Bert N. & R. A. Sydie (2001), Sociological Theory, Pine Forge Press. Blumer, Herbert (1986), Symbolic interactionism: perspective and method, University of California Press.

Fundamentals of Macroeconomics Essay

* Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- is the market value of all goods and services within a country in a period of time (Hindsight). * Real GDP- account for changes in the price level, an adjusted measure compared to Nominal GDP. * Nominal GDP- When a GDP figures that has not been adjusted for inflation. * Unemployment Rate- The rate is measure of unemployment citizens by dividing the number of unemployed by all currently employed. * Inflation Rate- Prices of items and services is rising, while purchasing power is in decline. * Interest Rate- The interest is paid by borrowers for the use of money they borrow from a loan lender. Part 2 An example would be food stamps sales and the groceries affects. A household family relies on the food stamps received from the American government, therefore used at the local Piggly Wiggly when buying the food. For someone who works for local government a massive layoff of employees is less likely. However, as an employed worker you are working harder for less money. A impact on retirement savings such as government cashing out citizens 401k’s. The government giving less money for grants for school or improvements on roadways, and fewer services provided to the citizens. A tax decrease will increase disposable income in a household. Disposable income is the main factor driving consumer demands. As a business, it encourages risk taking, hiring more employees, and even entrepreneurship. Government could have the opposite effect. Lowering taxes could mean cuts in department and services provided to the public. Reference Hindsight. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.forex-for-retirement.com/tag/hindsight/?lang=en_us&output=json&session-id=80f9522cbf28b08ef5fb257eb83c3330

Introduction to Duty of Care in Health, Social Care or Children’s

CT235: Introduction to duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young people’s settings (level 2) Overview Introduction The assignment for unit CT235 asks you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the principles for duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young peoples settings. The assignment is designed to ensure that by completing all the tasks, you will meet the learning outcomes and assessment criteria for this unit. Tasks There are three tasks to this assignment. Task A : short answer questions Task B: complete table Task C : short answer questions Task A: 1.Understand how duty of care contributes to safe practice Please answer the following: 1. What does duty of care mean in adult settings? (Ref:1. 1) The duty of care is a legal obligation imposed on an individual requiring that they adhere to a standard of reasonable care. It applies to everyone, organisations, even if not directly involved with the person and ensur es the safeguarding of you and others whom you support. 2. Describe how this affects your own job role (Ref 1. 2) We are here to ‘look after’ vulnerable adults and we have a duty to protect and serve the service users to the best of our ability. Related reading: Explain Legal and Organisational Requirements for Dealing With ComplaintsTask B: 2. Know how to address conflicts or dilemmas that may arise between an individuals rights and your duty of care Complete the following table: Example of potential conflict or dilemma (Ref: 2. 1)Where to get additional support and advice (Ref 2. 2) 1. A resident who is refusing to eat or drink anything Try to persuade them to eat or drink, calmly explain the importance of them eating and drinking, if that fails report to a senior member of staff and document the situation. 2. A resident who is being violent, abusive or un-cooperative.Give them time to calm down , be patient and try and make them feel safe and supported. Maybe there’s a reason behind the abuse and violence? Try and get to the bottom of it?. Talk to a senior member of staff and document the episodes maybe there’s a pattern. 3. A resident is refusing to shower or wash or have their clothes changed. Calmly expla in the importance of washing and personal hygiene see if it helps if not document and report to a senior member of staff. Task C: 3. Know how to respond to complaints. For this task please explain the following: 1.The main points of agreed procedures for handling complaints in adult settings (3. 1) Policies and procedures are in place to be followed, we have a complaints procedure which is easily accessible to service users and their prospective families. We have them easily accessible so that the service users know that they have a right to have an opinion and there are ways for them to be heard. 2. How would you respond to a complaint (3. 2) Following the complaints procedure I would report the complaint to a senior member of staff and document the complaint as necessary. Introduction to Duty of Care in Health, Social Care or Children’s CT235: Introduction to duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young people’s settings (level 2) Overview Introduction The assignment for unit CT235 asks you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the principles for duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young peoples settings. The assignment is designed to ensure that by completing all the tasks, you will meet the learning outcomes and assessment criteria for this unit. Tasks There are three tasks to this assignment. Task A : short answer questions Task B: complete table Task C : short answer questions Task A: 1.Understand how duty of care contributes to safe practice Please answer the following: 1. What does duty of care mean in adult settings? (Ref:1. 1) The duty of care is a legal obligation imposed on an individual requiring that they adhere to a standard of reasonable care. It applies to everyone, organisations, even if not directly involved with the person and ensur es the safeguarding of you and others whom you support. 2. Describe how this affects your own job role (Ref 1. 2) We are here to ‘look after’ vulnerable adults and we have a duty to protect and serve the service users to the best of our ability. Related reading: Explain Legal and Organisational Requirements for Dealing With ComplaintsTask B: 2. Know how to address conflicts or dilemmas that may arise between an individuals rights and your duty of care Complete the following table: Example of potential conflict or dilemma (Ref: 2. 1)Where to get additional support and advice (Ref 2. 2) 1. A resident who is refusing to eat or drink anything Try to persuade them to eat or drink, calmly explain the importance of them eating and drinking, if that fails report to a senior member of staff and document the situation. 2. A resident who is being violent, abusive or un-cooperative.Give them time to calm down , be patient and try and make them feel safe and supported. Maybe there’s a reason behind the abuse and violence? Try and get to the bottom of it?. Talk to a senior member of staff and document the episodes maybe there’s a pattern. 3. A resident is refusing to shower or wash or have their clothes changed. Calmly expla in the importance of washing and personal hygiene see if it helps if not document and report to a senior member of staff. Task C: 3. Know how to respond to complaints. For this task please explain the following: 1.The main points of agreed procedures for handling complaints in adult settings (3. 1) Policies and procedures are in place to be followed, we have a complaints procedure which is easily accessible to service users and their prospective families. We have them easily accessible so that the service users know that they have a right to have an opinion and there are ways for them to be heard. 2. How would you respond to a complaint (3. 2) Following the complaints procedure I would report the complaint to a senior member of staff and document the complaint as necessary.

Before and After essays

Before and After essays Everyone knows the biblical story of David and Goliath; how the young, faith-driven shepherd alone and with only a sling and stone slew the giant Philistine warrior Goliath and brought victory to Israel. Its a tale cherished by Christians and Jews alike and throughout history has been immortalized in all areas of artistry. Probably the most recognizable and praised works representing the story were done in sculpture by the Early Renaissance artist Donatello and the High Renaissance artist Michelangelo (both of which are not to be confused with the fictional, sewer inhabiting, kung fu turtle-teens). However, though both sculptures greatly illustrate their makers mastery of statuary and are considered exquisite images of the biblical hero David, both Michelangelo and Donatellos David are extremely contrast in interpretation. Even at a first glance, it isnt difficult to tell a difference in the statues. Though both depict David as a young and fair looking lad dressed without modesty in his birthday suit, there truly isnt much of a comparison in the overall form and scale of the statues. Donatellos David is a life-sized figure made from smooth and lustrous brass that relies on light reflections to create its muscles. He is petite and appears quite feminine in his vertical contrapasto and long curly hair. That femininity makes the sculpture look like a young child that is more realistic based on the Bible. On the other hand, Michelangelos David is a massive figure (much larger than life-sized) created from raw marble, which leaves no shine and relies on shadow to create its depth and form. Michelangelos David resembles a strong, sturdy, and very masculine young man that has a more diagonal contrapasto implying muscle tension in the figure (perhaps signifying the action to come). Ultimately, Donate llo in his statue ap...

We Are Our Mothers Daughters Essays - Cokie Roberts, Free Essays

We Are Our Mothers Daughters' Essays - Cokie Roberts, Free Essays We Are Our Mothers Daughters' Book Review We Are Our Mothers Daughters News correspondent Cokie Roberts, author of a meaningful book titled We are Our Mothers Daughters, published in 1998, call number 001-170, discusses significant issues facing women today in her book. She takes her readers on a personal and political journey, exploring the diverse roles women have played throughout American history and the connections and distinctions among different generations of women. On a personal level, each essay is an introduction to several of the fascination women Roberts has encountered during the course of her reporting career; she also relates powerful and moving life stories about the women in her life, like her mother former Congresswoman Lindy Boggs. Roberts style is unique. Roberts takes you through intimate stories of extraordinary women; these women become the beginning for more extensive discussions of womens position in politics, business, motherhood, and marriage, as well as other issues. Roberts examines the nature of womens roles, from mother to mechanic, sister to soldier, from her personal experience. Roberts is very sincere to her feelings in her writing in this book. I felt just as she was happy or sad. She begins her writing with the intense story of her sister, whom dies from cancer at a young age. The story of her mothers life as a politician next. Roberts also, wrote about an aunt of hers, a soldier, mechanic, friend, reporter, civil rights activist, wife, and an enterpriser. She concludes her book by her last chapter titled A Womens Place. She discusses all the important roles of the women she wrote about and how they tie together. A womens place is everywhere and anywhere in todays world. She worked her writing by writing about the women that were close to her and extended from there to other fascinating women she encountered in her career. Roberts dedicated a chapter to each women she wrote about. This book from my view is sensitive, strait forward, and perceptive. It also shows such a diversity of choices and perspectives available to women today and greatly affirms the bond of females powerful inter connection among all women, whatever their background. I would suggest anyone interested in where a women belong and the history of women should read this selection. Its just one of those bookes, where from start to end you might cry or laugh. I garuntee when you begin to read, you will not want to stop till you have read the entire book.

APA Guide

APA Guide Plagiarism can be a pricey mistake, costing money, hassle, and jeopardizing your career. You want to make sure that you are properly using modern standards for documenting your sources as you write. Luckily, the APA Guide provides plenty of helpful guidelines for documenting your sources. The Price of Plagiarism The consequences of plagiarism can be dire. Even if you dont intend to plagiarize another persons work, you can put your career in jeopardy with a single mistake. You can face law suits, expulsion, and the publication of your paper can be declined, if any small part of your paper is considered plagiarized. The APA Guide to Citation The APA Guide helps you avoid these situations by properly citing works that you reference. Whether youre writing a business report or preparing an academic paper, you can use the APA Guide to properly credit your sources. Because of its easy parenthetical citation format, you can quickly insert your credits in a matter of seconds. When to Make Citations You must cite sources for any text you are summarizing, quoting verbatim, and for any idea or theory which is not your own. For instance, if you are citing Klauswitzs theory on the fog of war, you will need to quote his text (or a secondary source) in order to use that phrase in your paper. Even if you are quoting a source with which you do not agree, you still always need to include a citation for the quotation you wish to refute.

Offshoring Service Sector Jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Offshoring Service Sector Jobs - Essay Example 1-10, 2011). In addition, this has also created a single platform for the businesses that can develop, broaden, and extend their business operations and activities from local to international arena. Indeed, these elevations and progressions has augmented the element of competition in the business community, hence it has now become one of the most imperative aspects for all corporations and businesses. As an outcome, the key emphasis of the organizations is now on the amplified productivity of goods and services (Feenstra & Taylor, pp. 1-10, 2011). The trends of the current market in the recent years have also depicted the fact that the businesses are constantly struggling with the challenges in order to survive and persist in the marketplace for which they are striving to work in the most effective and efficient manner. The notion and idea of globalization and globalized production has also broadened its capacity to the service industry as well. However, the human resource has always comes under the consideration to be the most valuable asset, because they can either make the organization witness the heights of success or can be the prime reason for its failure (Feenstra & Taylor, pp. 1-10, 2011). The records divulge the fact that the global economy is experiencing a structural change. With the increase in the global competition, pressures on profit margins have also come under its influence, which has given rise to the concept of offshoring. Through offshoring, likelihood of productivity increases as the enterprises have the option to work round the clock to send the data back and forth from the host country to the home country (Farrell &Â  McKinsey Global Institute, pp. 3-10, 2007). Therefore, offshoring has become a prominent part of the recent trend, predominantly in the service sector that is the relocation or repositioning of an operational unit or process of the organization that include information technology, accounting and several others from one pla ce to another either on a local or international basis. In addition, offshore also comes under association to outsourcing of people that has gained significant importance from the latter half of the twentieth century (Farrell &Â  McKinsey Global Institute, pp. 3-10, 2007). The below graph is a representation that undoubtedly and noticeably demonstrates the idea that offshoring in the service sector is intensifying with the passage of time. (Schaaf, pp. 11, 2004) This is due to the reason that offshoring saved a huge amount of expense of the wages as the under-developed nations produce more skilled workers on relatively less wages when compared to the workers of the developed countries. Lower production cost coupled to the lower cost of labor is one of the leading and principal reasons that lead to offshoring in the service sector. The studies expose the piece of information that there is a huge difference between the labor costs of the underdeveloped nations when compared to the de veloped countries. Besides, the other costs such as health insurance and pension costs are also much lower in the underdeveloped countries relatively. Nevertheless, the saved amount can come under utilization for the telecommunications, data security, or the service quality of

Law Cases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law Cases - Essay Example Additionally, it questions if limiting specific conduct, can be due to an opinion that is unpopular. South Carolina Supreme Court decision was that the state had no power to arrest and charge the demonstrators totally based on the opinions they were expressing. The court indicated that the defendants were convicted of an offense that was general in nature and not of exact definition. The Supreme Court thus reversed the decision of the State Trial Court. Due to lack of hostility on the side of demonstrators as well as spectators in addition to lack of clear evidence that the traffic flow was disturbed by the demonstrators made the Supreme Court to reverse the decision. According to the Supreme Court, the state suppressed the demonstrator’s freedom of speech. The case involved Florida A&M students who demonstrated in a non-public drive near a jailhouse premises. Despite being warned by the sheriff, they continued with the demonstrations leading to the arrest of 107 students. After being convicted by Florida Circuit Court as well as the District Court of Appeals, the petitioners indicated that they were denied fourteenth amendments rights. The major issue in this case is to determine whether or not the students had the right to engage in a demonstration on non-public premises. Another issue was to determine whether the jailhouse is included in the category of public office. According to the Supreme Court, the drives as well as the jailhouse premises are not in the category of public property. Since the petitioners had no intention of seeking service from the jail the abatement argument was dismissed. During the hearing, violation of constitutional rights was not perceived to have an impact on the case. During this case, the reasoning was that the state has the right to enforce its rules to protect the ground that is private. There lacked recorded evidence

Islam College Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Islam College - Essay Example In Islam, there are two dominant schools of thoughts. One school of thought agrees upon the concept of spiritual excellence through meditation and struggle for nearness of Allah; the other school of thoughts is strict about the worldly affairs and have narrowed the domain to worldly affairs and five pillars of Islam. The Sufi Islam has strong concept of Sacred Law - this law is between God and the follower. As per law, the Sufi has to maintain secrecy in his spiritual affairs, and matters compounding to identity and matters of God are kept private. It is also claimed that it is difficult to comprehend the power and spirituality of God, and therefore it remains beyond the scope of human understanding and intellect. The relationship between God and his follower is of affection and love, and is beyond any justification based upon intellectual topology. The human being with average spiritual status will probably fail to understand the expression and revelation of the Sufi. The Sufis have therefore gain unique status and repute in their society, and have been popular because of their uncommon and strange expressions towards divine authority. In Sufi Islam, there exists concept of mentor or guide also called Mursid. The Mursid is person who has achieved spiritual success, and has developed contact and affiliation with God. The followers of Mursid are called Mureed - the followers do not consider their Mursid as equivalent to God but for them the Mursid is passage towards spiritual divinity. The Mursid is respected and followed because of his spiritual affiliation and accomplishments by Mureed. Mursid shall never be confused with Prophets - rather the entity of Mursid is based upon his spiritual accomplishments and love for God. Nawawi is considered among the great Sufi scholar in Islamic world. According to Nawawi concept of Sufism is about maintaining close affiliation with God. The Sufis are individuals who have submitted their life towards God, and have spent their time, money, intellect and life for maintaining spiritual bond with the Supreme Lord. The five important actions contribute towards the spiritual marvels of the follower, and have been identified by Nawawi as 1. maintaining close spiritual affiliation with God with meditation and Zikr privately and publicly; 2. abide by the injunctions of Quran and Sunnah; 3. shun assistance from public and develop liaison with God for assistance and support, and believe that God will itself manifest source for help; 4. contentment is essential - and follower shall be satisfied with all bestowed upon by God; 5. seek assistance and guidance from God directly (Rafik12-34) The affection and love for God has been restricted to the observance of the fundamentals of Islam. The interpretation of Nawawi about Sufism is itself different - the intensity of love and affection has not been discussed. The Shiite concept talks about the intensity and seriousness of love, there bond between the God and follower is so deep rather the follower is above the entity of human being and is strongly concentrated with the qualities and characteristics of God - the purity, the spirituality and kindness. Dr. Chittick has discussed this expression of love and spirituality which was possessed by Rumi. It is claimed that Rumi was probably among the few who reached the climax of their spiritual journey. Sufism has been regarded

Assess the practical usefulness and the relevance of game theory in Essay - 1

Assess the practical usefulness and the relevance of game theory in light of the demanding assumptions behind the concept of the - Essay Example In addition, today game theory is used in a variety of behavioural relations and is extended to both human as well as non-humans. This theoretical framework first described zero-sum games where an individual’s gains are exactly equal to the net losses of other participant(s). This paper will assess the practical usefulness and the relevance of game theory in light of the demanding assumptions behind the concept of the Nash equilibrium. Game Theory The game theory is based on the fundamental concept of zero-sum games, and a game has elements such as players, actions, information, strategies, outcomes, payoffs, and equilibria. Game theory evaluates strategic interactions where the outcome of a player’s choices greatly depends on the choices of other players. Basically, for a situation to be a game, there should be at least two rational players who consider each other’s choices while framing strategies (QuickMBA). The game theory has two distinct branches namely coo perative and non cooperative game theory. Most of the cooperative games are expressed in the characteristic function whereas extensive and normal forms are used to illustrate non-cooperative games. Games are illustrated using trees (figure 1) under the extensive form and each node or vertex represents the point of choice of players participating (Fudenberg & Tirole, 1991, p. 67). Each rational player is particularly indicated by a number specified by the vertex. The participants’ possible actions are depicted by the lines projecting out of the vertex while bottom of the tree represents the payoffs (Ibid). The authors add that the extensive form can be termed as â€Å"a multi-player generalisations of a decision tree† (Ibid). (Source: Ross, 2012) Under the normal form or strategic form, a matrix representing players, strategies, and payoffs is used for illustration. A major assumption when the normal form is used to indicate a game is that each participant makes choices without actually knowing the choices or actions of others. When players’ actions are known to other participants, generally the extensive form is used to represent the game. The characteristic function form was developed by scholars like John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. The authors claim that when a union C appears, it begins to work against the fraction (N/C) as if two players were participating in a normal game. Nash Equilibrium Nash equilibrium is a complex concept associated with the game theory. As Osborne (1994, p. 9) clearly states, â€Å"Nash equilibrium is a steady state solution concept in which each player’s decision depends on knowledge of the equilibrium†. More precisely, under the Nash equilibrium, it is assumed that each player knows the equilibrium strategies of other participants and no player can gain anything by altering their own strategy. The concept of Nash equilibrium has a wide range of applications in connection with the game the ory. Game theorists widely use this solution concept to interpret the outcomes realised from several decision makers’ strategic interactions. It greatly assists analysts to predict what would happen if several players are forming decisions simultaneously and if the outcome depends on others’ decisions. Nash equilibrium is potential to analyse unpleasant situations like arms

Discussion board forum Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Discussion board forum - Assignment Example Pedagogical approaches to learning perceive diminutive validity in the experience the student gains in previous learning sessions. Based on the pedagogical approach, the matter of concern is the teacher’s experience, as well as the content of the instructional aids (Bostock & Wood, 2012). On the contrary, the andragogical approach perceives the learner’s experience as a rich source of the ability to attain more information and thus, acts as a resource for successful knowledge processes in the future. Pedagogical methods use assigned readings, lectures, as well as passive methods in passing ideas to the students (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). On the other hand, andragogical approaches apply the use of experiential methods, such as problem-solving instances, lab experiments and simulation game. The two methods differ further in terms of predication. On one hand, educational methods assume that everyone is always willing to learn what their society dictates. Therefore, because everyone is always ready to learn, every learning exercise should apply a standardized curriculum. On the contrary, andragogy provides that learners acquire the readiness and urge to learn when they gain their initial experience to learn because of a need that arises requiring them to acquire some understanding in order to cope with some real-life problems (Bostock & Wood, 2012). In this view, information should emphasize on real-life situations and tailored to the real-life needs of the learners, as well as their call and readiness to learn. Pedagogical approaches to learning in addition make the assumption that knowledge possesses future orientation, and thus, what learners learn today may turn out to be beneficial at some later situations and thus, application may not be necessary for the same instance of learning (Vodde, 2009). On the other hand, andagogical styles assume learning to be a process involving the development of increased competencies and thus, the

Individual business report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Individual business report - Essay Example Arnott’s seeks to expand its market by sourcing and manufacturing the entire product in Greece since biscuits and snacks are too peripheral to any country’s economic needs to feature saliently in import-export trade. Other alternatives to this mode of expansion is bound to expose Arnott’s to the government-imposed rigours of import-export trade, since the Greece government like any other, will seek to maintain a favourable balance of trade. The report will discuss the feasibility of Arnott’s desire to go to Greece, in respect to Arnott’s current status and Greece’s socioeconomic, political, legal and environmental conditions. Parts 2.0- 6.0 of this report discuss Arnott’s prospects in light of the political, legal, economic, socio-cultural and technological conditions in Greece. Part 7.0 discusses Arnott’s prospects by using SWOT analysis. Part 8.0 is the recommendation section. Greece’s political stability is underscored by it being a parliamentary republic, having the President as the head of the state and the Prime Minister as the head of the government. The constitution of Greece with its 120 articles allows for the separation of powers among the legislature, judiciary and the executive. This political stability will help Arnott’s to thrive. Likewise, taxation and regulation of trade will be carried adroitly, since separation of powers readily co-occurs with bureaucracy (Kizos and Iosifides, 2007, 66). Bà ¢rgà £oanu, Negrea and Dascà £lu (2010, 35) explain that Greece joined the European Union (EU) in 1981 and represents 41.5% of the EU’s deadweight tonnage. Greco-Australian relations are very close. This closeness dates back to World War I and II and the Korean War where Australia fought alongside Greece. Therefore, the Grecian government is naturally predisposed to encourage Greco-Australian trade (Vogiatzoglou, 2007, 53). Arnott’s must sign articles of

Discussion board forum Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Discussion board forum - Assignment Example Pedagogical approaches to learning perceive diminutive validity in the experience the student gains in previous learning sessions. Based on the pedagogical approach, the matter of concern is the teacher’s experience, as well as the content of the instructional aids (Bostock & Wood, 2012). On the contrary, the andragogical approach perceives the learner’s experience as a rich source of the ability to attain more information and thus, acts as a resource for successful knowledge processes in the future. Pedagogical methods use assigned readings, lectures, as well as passive methods in passing ideas to the students (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). On the other hand, andragogical approaches apply the use of experiential methods, such as problem-solving instances, lab experiments and simulation game. The two methods differ further in terms of predication. On one hand, educational methods assume that everyone is always willing to learn what their society dictates. Therefore, because everyone is always ready to learn, every learning exercise should apply a standardized curriculum. On the contrary, andragogy provides that learners acquire the readiness and urge to learn when they gain their initial experience to learn because of a need that arises requiring them to acquire some understanding in order to cope with some real-life problems (Bostock & Wood, 2012). In this view, information should emphasize on real-life situations and tailored to the real-life needs of the learners, as well as their call and readiness to learn. Pedagogical approaches to learning in addition make the assumption that knowledge possesses future orientation, and thus, what learners learn today may turn out to be beneficial at some later situations and thus, application may not be necessary for the same instance of learning (Vodde, 2009). On the other hand, andagogical styles assume learning to be a process involving the development of increased competencies and thus, the

Balanced Safety Scorecard for Saudi Schools Thesis - 1

Balanced Safety Scorecard for Saudi Schools - Thesis Example For incorporating any new initiative it is important that the Management and the top bosses are with it. Unless they decide to implement the program, process or initiative properly no new thing can go through. Hence while designing a Safety BSC it is important to evaluate the attitude of the Management. Management is more generic term; it shall include the top management authority of the school, Cleaners, administrative staff and the teachers as well. This is because safety is universal to all human beings and its learning and knowledge should not be imparted based on degree of seniority or status. Once the BSC is implemented by looking at this perspective score one can say that how successful the management is in taking care of health and safety of its pupils in schools and what are the areas of improvement for the managers.Factors under this perspective will basically include factors which indicate the dedication of management to safety, involvement of employees in the safety progr am and their awareness level. Sometimes the program is implemented from up above but till it reaches at the base level staff the effectiveness and efficiency decreases drastically. Hence it is important also to see how the supervisors are carrying out their duty of communication and support to its subordinates. Hence perceived supervisor competence is a factor to be considered. There has to be some incentive shown to people for being a party to safety culture. The title may be self explanatory but the question might arise that why is it necessary.

USA should Begin Withdrawing Troops from Iraq Essay Example for Free

USA should Begin Withdrawing Troops from Iraq Essay War in Iraq affects many countries, their social and economic situation, political stability and international relations. A question of the American military presence in Iraq is one of the most controversial issues in political practice. During years of heated discussions, society has tried to solve the ethical, philosophical and political dilemma concerning the war on terror and aggression of American government against Iraqi people. America should withdraw troops from Iraq because its military presence and occupation contradicts International Law (Hewitt, 2002). The example of the Iraqi war illustrates the fact that the problems of conflicts and violence are not carried out at a distance, against anonymous and invisible victims, but in immediate physical confrontations with them. Another argument is that there is the increasing violence in Iraq against the US military. Following Jeffrey Sachs: â€Å"Were learning again that America cannot be an occupying force in the Middle East† (Web Forum: Was It Worth It?, 2006). Another reason against the military presence of the USA in Iraq is that primary justification for the war against terror and military intervention in Iraq (weapons of mass destruction) is false. The main consequence was a shift of U.S. policy from peaceful neutrality to aggressive international policy supported by military strength. â€Å"It would serve as an example of Washingtons repeated difficulty in winning guerrilla conflicts† (U.S. Faces Pressure †¦ 2005). In addition, the US should withdraws troops from Iraq because the short-term consequences of its presence include increasing budget spending on military sector and security programs, temporal stability and security of the American nation. Nevertheless, the war can create more terrorism affected innocent people around the world. The complications are that in a globalizing world, rich countries cannot insulate themselves from insecurity. Poverty and weak institutions are breeding grounds for public-health crises, violence, and economic volatility. Taking into account the opposite view, it is possible to say that if the USA withdraws troops form Iraq it will threaten its national security and defense. Also, many politicians suppose that the US should implement its long-term policies aimed to strengthen democracy and weakened terrorist groups in this region. Today, Iraqi army is not strong enough to oppose terrorist groups and maintain peace in the region. â€Å"Republicans, warned that withdrawing U.S. troops before the Iraqi army is fully prepared to defend the country against an intractable insurgency would lead to more violence and possible civil war† (Tate, 2006). In this case, it is evident that the US military presence in Iraq is important to secure stable political situation in the region. There seems to be general agreement that competition for political power and the material resources to which such power gives access is a general explanation of the phenomena discussed in the paper. Democratic processes that aim to empower the populace with the final authority see the problem as a top down solution.  No doubt that in modern society the main role is featured to democracy and the US presence supports democratic processes in Iraq. The re-organization of the political system should be mentioned here. Also, a civil war â€Å"could spill over into the rest of the region and threaten the worlds energy supplies, a development that would damage the economies of all oil-dependent countries† (U.S. Faces Pressure †¦ 2005). In this situation, the purpose of US forces is to maintain the continuity of the borders while introducing a degree of regional and local autonomy.   In spite of democratic changes and political stability in Iraq, â€Å"the threat is real and its all the more lethal because, paradoxically or not, its driven by religion and nihilism and a civilizations very unhappy encounter with modernity† (Web Forum, 2006). In this case, the US military is a force which ensures political stability and security for civil population. I suppose that the US should not withdraw troops from Iraq because US forces and control ensures political stability for both Iraq and the US nation. Every nation has the right to go to war in order to sustain its unity, to abolish poor governance, to re-organize the existing political institution if they violate national rights and self-determination. The war on terror and the problem of terrorism has not been yet, and it requires special measures to be made in order to ensure global peace and political stability. From the point of view of the USA, it is a necessary step to protect its citizen from adverse intervention by a nation intending to use weapons of mass destruction. The major public concern is atomic war and its consequences for the globe. Efforts to control these activities through investigations and surveillance on the part of the law-enforcement community also illustrate positive measures to counter the threat of terrorism. Military aid to the civil power is a measure available to the Iraqi government in extraordinary circumstances. â€Å"The US military do whatever we have to do to stabilize Iraq and Afghanistan and use the military power of the U.S. to do that (Burns, 2006). It is important to note that the war in Iraq is aimed to protect civil population from the authoritarian government and its attempts to control natural resources. â€Å"There is no question that Iraq is an important, if not the most important, theater in terms of the fight against Al Qaeda† (Johnson, 2006).  Terrorism on the Middle East is an international problem for many countries including Israel and Palestine, the US and European countries. Thus, the initiation and implementation of measures in response to the threat of terrorism are often complex matters. The problems are magnified when international diplomatic conventions and considerations must also be taken into account. The main means to fight terrorism include firm opposition to terrorism in all its forms and wherever it takes place, and opposition to domestic and international terrorism and respond to terrorist acts. The US mission in Iraq is to ensure global peace and control over the region and its terror groups. References Burns, R. (2006). Pentagon Faces Tough Choices on Iraq. USNews and World Report. Sept 20, Retrieved from   http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_IRAQ?SITE=DCUSNSECTION=TOP_STORIESTEMPLATE=DEFAULT Johnson, S. (2006). ‘We Are Where We Are’ Newsweek. Aug. 14. Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14349435/site/newsweek/ 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hewitt, Ch. (2002). Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to Al Qaeda. Routledge. Tate, D. (2006). US Senate Rejects Proposals to Withdraw Troops From Iraq. June 22. Retrieved from http://voanews.com/english/archive/2006-06/2006-06-22-voa50.cfm?CFID=38746764CFTOKEN=55075176 S. Faces Pressure to Pull Troops from Iraq. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_reportreport_id=328language_id=1 Web Forum: Was It Worth It? (2006) Tuesday, Mar. 21. Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1175256,00.html

School Uniforms Essay -- Education

Schools should have uniforms for students so they can be distinguished between grade levels and to have all students dress the same way and offer some protection. Students might be against it because they want to wear regular clothes to impress other students. School uniform should be allowed in private as well in public schools because it will help faculty distinguish students, people and prevent inappropriate dressing. â€Å"Having a uniform helps students and parents resist peer pressure. In schools with no uniform, children may feel the need to dress in certain ways in order to fit in. This can often mean buying a lot of expensive and fashionable clothes that families cannot really afford. It can also mean girls being pressured into wearing skimpy clothes to try and look sexy at a very young age. It could even include Muslim girls feeling that they must wear a headscarf even though they don’t want to† (Debate, 2011). Parents of the student won’t have to purchase expensive cloth wear for their kids. Uniform will help them save money by purchasing the same uniform for all kids. â€Å"School Uniform will save parents money. The Upfront cost of uniform would be much less than a new wardrobe of the new â€Å"coolest† styles† (Kelly, 2012). This will let parents spend less money on expensive cloth that students are not even going to take care of them. They dress just to feel richer than other students, but in reality they try present themselves as if they had a lot of money. Uniforms will be the same shirt, color and same tie if their permitted by the school. It will also help them if they are going to buy the same shoes for all the kid because they might find them on clearance or on half price. School clothing can be purchased even in the same... ...understand their parents when it comes to spending money to buy their own cloth. Students might be against it but it’s not they’re call anymore and they have to wear what the board members had strictly gave them in order to succeed in their school days. References Brooks, M. (n.d.). Pros and cons. Retrieved from http://www.proconlists.com/list/education/school-uniforms/35 Debate, J. (2011, May 29). Debate pedia. Retrieved from http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:School_Uniform_(JUNIOR) Kelly , M. (2012, n.d.). School uniforms. Retrieved from http://712educators.about.com/cs/schoolviolence/a/uniforms.htm Wilde , M. (2012, n.d. n.d.). Do uniforms make school better?. Retrieved from http://www.greatschools.org/find-a-school/defining-your-ideal/121-school-uniforms.gs?page=3 (Brooks, n.d.) (Debate, 2011) (Kelly , 2012) (Wilde , 2012)

Essay on Social Order in The Tempest -- Tempest essays

The Social Order in The Tempest  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In Shakespeare's time, the social order was as powerful and rigid as law. Shakespeare provides an example of this social structure in his play, The Tempest. In the course of his play, the reader sees superior men dominating lesser beings on the basis of race, financial status, and gender. Not all upper class are completely corrupt, however. We see a semi-virtuous hero in the character of Prospero. Prospero has every reason to feel superior and exercise his social power, yet he doesn't always treat others disrespectfully. Although he does have some sense of charity, Prospero is still a good example of the social condition of the time.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One way in which The Tempest reflects Shakespeare's society is through the relationship between characters, especially between Prospero and Caliban. Caliban is the former king of the island, and Prospero and his daughter Miranda teach him how to be "civilized." Immediately thereafter, Prospero and Miranda enslave Caliban and he is forced to be their servant. Caliban explains "Thou strok'st me and make much of me... ...otte Porter and Helen A. Clarke (eds.) Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 1903. Knight, G. Wilson. "Shakespearian Superman" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Murray, J. Middleton. "Shakespeare's Dream" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Palmer, D.J. Shakespeare's Later Comedies: An Anthology of Modern Criticism. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1971. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. 1611. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Tillyard, E.M. "The Tragic Pattern" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968

How Film Technology Impacted Cinema’s Evolution Essay

Over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, cinema technology advanced greatly—and with an ever-growing history of movies from which to draw reference, film-makers have increasingly approached productions from fresher perspectives, while always employing the most modern equipment, in order to better serve the audiences of their days. In Visions Of Light, a series of interviews with directors and cinematographers explores how the evolution of microphones, lighting, film, staging, cameras and mounts has affected the translation of story into cinema in a variety of ways. When sound was first introduced, for instance, actors were forced to lean in closer to microphones that were hidden on the sets, in order to be better heard—thus affecting their physical impression on camera (Bailey, VL). Also, the advent of sound affected the mobility of cameras—and it was years before directors began taking moving shots again. Only after technology improved, and the practice of adding audio in post-production took hold, did cameras become fluid once more (Bailey, VL). In Visions Of Light, Zsigmond even goes so far as to claim the advent of sound might have affected film’s ability to rise to a higher form of art. Furthermore, in the early years, the onset of color film collided with the aesthetic prerogatives of directors from the black-and-white era of cinema. The dark-and-light stark contrasts of early film had always supplied directors with a strong foundation in a medium built on more abstract emotions—being more removed from reality, due to their lack of color (Daviau, VL). The introduction of red, yellow and blues, however, gradually eroded that surreal nature of young cinema—and left film-maker’s with a new spectrum of visuals to explore that were more rooted in reality—yet took away the artsier fare of the colorless picture (Daviau, VL). Finally, as the studios began to give way to more location shoots, and more independently ground-breaking and inventive movie-making, more experimental cinematography began taking place, including the increased use of techniques adopted from unintended effects of technology—and instructional mistakes on set. Inventiveness and new cameras and lenses wedded to create unprecedented waves of evolution in cinema. The more relaxed embracing of happy accidents, such as random camera â€Å"flares† for instance–and other unique lighting effects (Hall, VL), eventually led to the deeper medium today, where visual artisans have a century’s worth of rich and varied cinema to emulate, be inspired by—and pay homage to—in order to further expand upon the apparent human motion to improve the film experience. Visions Of Light is an inspiring look into the history of film—and a revelatory expose of the methods by which we attempt to translate our greatest tales into the constructs of cinema—and how technology and history have shaped the medium. By the time a movie is played on screen, one is witness to countless lifetimes of work, both in the perceived piece—as well as the endless sub-texts of cinema that came before it. The improvements of technology over time have both strengthened and handicapped cinema, enabling it to more accurately capture reality, while also rarifying the more abstract forms of black-and-white film and silent pictures. Future directors, of course, may yet return to the black-and-white medium, in order to test the depths of their art—but they may also find it more challenging than filming in color (Daviau, VL). Similarly, while sound changed movies from a purely visual form into a mixed discipline—directors who were to attempt to make a silent film today might find it more difficult to execute. Technology has allowed film to record reality better—while also blunting or limiting its inherent ability to translate more basic human emotions, through less colour or sound. Furthermore, as cameras have become more sophisticated and economical—the increased use of an independent, hand-held approach will change the look-and-feel of film for the coming generations, lending to it a more reality-based frame—and for that very same reason, a more difficult platform from which to craft the abstract. Overall, as technology advances, film evolves into a much different form from the shape it started out. It is now a fuller and more complex medium—although perhaps less of a straightforward one. With each mounting generation, directors have to grapple with the new and profound questions about how to approach the entertainment and education of an audience. They have to learn how to emulate the traditional paths of film’s past auteurs—but also, and equally importantly, to test the limits of the undiscovered country and new technology in cinema. Film-making as an art-form is ever-evolving and re-engaging its audiences in newer and more gripping ways. The language of the motion picture, however, is fundamentally limited by the science which allows it—and so, in order to direct most effectively, every last available trick of modern film-making must be employed, toward the end of showing people something they haven’t seen before, and creating a synthesis that succeeds in overwhelming the sum of its parts. Newer technologies and angles must be embraced, in order to achieve a more honest form of surprise and catharsis, so that audiences are finally moved and enlightened. For as technology evolves, so too does our tool set in the medium—providing an endless art-form to perfect and exercise up to the heights of cinema, as modeled by Citizen Kane. No patterns from past directors can ever be totally relied on, of course, in order to achieve the freshest cutting edge of new cinema—but those who are willing to learn the trade as well as take risks and experiment in the non-traditional forms are the ones who will always create original and inspiring works. Thinkers and shapers who are keen to test tomorrow’s technologies and exploit their own mistakes are the ones who will consistently set the bar higher—and allow the younger audiences to be livened up by the unexpected. Film’s suspension of disbelief, after all, dwells in the camera’s ability to capture the world around us—but also, in the editing room, where unnecessary redundancies of past pictures are trimmed back–and re-hashed tricks of the trade are left on the cutting floor. Only the bare bone advances of new cameras and exciting visual storytelling will seduce the eye and mind long enough to engage future audiences. Only the visionaries of light and sound will remind people of their daily existences deeply enough to be enthralled by the verisimilitude of it all—while simultaneously transporting them far enough away from themselves, that they will ultimately leave the theaters changed forever. Works Cited Vision Of Light. Samuels, S. ; Glassman, A. ; McCarthy, T. ; Glassman, A.. Daviau, A. ; Almendros, N. ; Bailey, J. ; Hall, C. ; Kovacs, L. ; Nykvist, S. ; Storaro, V. ; Wexler, H. ; Willis, G. ; Zsigmond, V. ; DVD. CBS FOX, 1993.

Sexual Stereotypes In Advertising

A stereotype is a standardized character, of appearance or lifestyle which people expect. For example most people if asked to describe a ‘Super Hero' would reply with, ‘strong, tall, brave and good looking,' but is this always the case? Therefore sexual stereotypes are about how people expect a person to look or act because of their gender. Men are thought of as successful businessmen in suits and striped shirts, which is a sign of wealth. In some cases the male is seen as the father figure in a family of four, but in both of these cases his is attractive to the opposite sex. Young boys are often cheeky and mischievous, they tend to wear blue as it is though of as a ‘boy's' colour. In the majority of cases they are portrayed as been sporty and even from this early age show a keen interest in cars. In advertising, a woman is seen as the mother of a family who does all of the housework and cooking for the other members of the family. They wear purple or pastel blue, which brings across the message that they are soft and feminine. If they are acting the housewife they are usually slim, attractive and extremely good-looking. The reason for this is that the company will try and sell the product using a ‘sex appeal' method which can be very effective. If this is the case, bright, bold colours such as red and pink are used so that the model stands out. Little girls are often portrayed as cute and gentle, so that viewers get emotional when they are watching. In most cases they are dresses in a pink dress, with a doll and their hair is styled into little curls. I have decided to use three ‘OXO' advertisements, which are advertising gravy to show how different sexes are addressed in different circumstances. In the first advertisement a women is cooking in a kitchen with a big grin on her face, this suggests that she is happy with what she is doing and feels at ‘home' with cooking. She is wearing a light purple top, the reason for this is that it helps the bright colours of the ‘OXO' logo to stand out. The young girl who is most probably the lady's daughter is helping her mother happily and brings across the message that she will one day become the mother and cook for her own family. Finally the little boy is watching his mother but not taking any part in the cooking. He has a big smile on his face, as he waits for his lunch to be made. The fact that he is not helping is significant because this is the case in most advertisements that include males and cooking. On the whole this is a stereotypical advertisement with the mother cooking the dinner and the male not taking part. The text in the advert is emboldened and bright, this is so that the logo stands out and if someone has a quick glance at the poster the logo is the image that will stay in their mind. The second advertisement is different from the first for the simple fact that this time it is the farther in the kitchen not the mother. The father has done the cooking for his two sons but he has made a mess, this shows that most people have the idea then men can not cook but women can and this is another stereotypical idea which is obviously not true at all. The two sons are looking at their father in disgust and as most likely thinking, ‘What will mum do?' The advertisement shows that even though the father does not know how to cook he still knows that ‘OXO' is the best and if a man who can not cook knows this, its obvious to a woman who can cook that ‘OXO' is the best gravy to use. There is no ‘OXO' logo on this advertisement and I think that is because it is a ‘still' from a television advertisement unlike the first which was a poster. The third and final ‘OXO' advertisement uses both male and female characters. It contains a stereotypical image of a women who has done the cooking and serving the food to the other three family members two of which are male and are sitting at the table waiting for their dinner. The father figure, in the scene is just reading his newspaper and the fact that he is doing nothing else is a stereotypical idea of a father waiting for his dinner. All of the family is smiling as they receive their dinner and this is because they are about to receive ‘OXO' gravy, which brings across the message that it is good. The way in which the advertisement uses both male and female characters in a stereotypical form is important because it sets a common family scene and people think that it also applies to their family. On the whole all three of the advertisements used both male and female characters and I think that is because the product is for both sexes but I also think that even though this is the case women are still portrayed as the cook. There are some adverts, which use only male models, and these usually advertise products such as cars, aftershave, DIY products and shaving equipment. One example of an advert, which uses just a male character, is advertising Hugo Boss Aftershave. The man in the advert is brought across as a successful businessman and we can tell this by the way he dresses. I think that the striped shirt, which he is wearing, is a sign of wealth and success. The man's hands are clean and his nails have been professionally manicured which suggests to me that he has a surplus of money. He is holding a file-fax in his hands, which would mean that he, is heading for a meeting and therefore adding to the ‘Businessman Image'. The advert contains a typical stereotype image of a man and I think that he dresses like this so that a man will buy the aftershave because he will think that it will make him rich and successful. If this is not the case and the mans wife or girlfriend is buying him a present she may buy this because her sub-conscious will tell her that her man will end up looking like the model in the advert. In the same way that men are used solely in advertisements, women are also used in order to sell products to males using sex appeal or to sell products to women through a sub-conscious method. In an advert for ‘Hot Choc Drinks' an attractive woman is dressed in red and has a slim figure and this is another example of stereotyping. The reason that the woman is dressed in red is to attract the customers' attention and the colour red is good at doing this. The attractive face and slim figure suggests to other women that if they drink ‘Hot Choc' they too will get a body like the model, which unfortunately is untrue. To a male buyer it suggests to his sub-conscious that he will be likely to encounter girls like the model. The cup in the model's hand is the same shape as her body to remind the customer of what's in store in the unlikely event that they will forget. After looking at the five different adverts I have decided that companies use different types of models and stereotype these models to grab the customers attention or to act on their sub-conscious, which will hopefully result in an increase in sales. Nowadays most advertisements are shown on television and here are two examples showing how television also uses stereotyping. The Yorkie advert has a slogan, which states, ‘Yorkie; it's not for girls.' This shows that the chocolate is so big and chunky that it is only for men. The idea of the big chunks of chocolate suggests that women are too small and weak to handle this. It may be also portraying the same message as in the ‘Hot Chocs' advertisement meaning that women are not allowed it because it will cause them to become fat and unattractive. During the adverts a women dresses as a man in order to purchase the chocolate, she wears male clothing and a fake beard as it would be extraordinary for a woman to have so much facial hair. The woman also speaks in a deep voice so that the shop owner does not realise because women are expected to talk in a soft voice and doing so would give her game away. This is an example of sexual stereotyping saying that men have facial hair and speak in deep voices, which may not always be the case. Towards the end of the advertisement the women's real identity is revealed which is another example of sexual stereotypes. The second television advertisement that I have chosen is advertising an insurance company, which is just for women. The company says the if you chance your insurance to them it could be cheaper because it is just for women. This brings across a stereotypical image that males, young and old, are dangerous drivers who push their car it its limits. This of cause is untrue and there, as just as many bad female drivers as there are bad male drivers. In the advertisement there is a women who is presenting the information and the company logo contains the colour pink, these two points are significant if the company wants to keep with the idea that women are better drivers. The reason for this is that the people who are watching the advertisement will be getting the information from another women, which they will probably value more. Pink is a stereotypical colour which as always been associated with females of every age. Both of these advertisements express stereotypical images of men and women in completely different ways, but these are just a small selection of the many ways men and women are portrayed. The roles of men and women have changed considerably over time, but in peoples sub-conscious they appear to have stayed the same and therefore have also not changed in advertising. For example most males are portrayed most successful businessmen and nowadays women go to work rather than staying at home doing the housework.

Discuss expectancy effects in research

Psychological experimentation is a process aimed to prove that certain types of behavior are predictable under particular situations or treatment conditions. These treatment conditions are manipulated in such a way that the setting created by the experimenters will invoke participants to display behavior towards the independent variable in regularity. This, in turn, will verify the experimenters’ hypotheses regarding the behavior in question. Hence, through experimentation, causal inferences between the independent and dependent variables can be reached.However, experimentations do not always go as planned. There are times when experimenters overlook various factors that may wrongly or unnecessarily affect the results of the experiment. These factors are known as extraneous variables, variables that are not the main focus of the study yet may produce variations in behavior. When extraneous variables become frequent and change systematically across different conditions of an ex periment, results can be confounded. One of the more popularly known consequences of extraneous variables is the Placebo Effect.Hansen and Myers (2002) explain that this is a type of social extraneous variable wherein participants react to the independent variable according to how they expect the independent variable to affect them (p. 196). Since the behavior of the participants is based on their expected effects, changes that occur may less likely be due to the independent variable. This indeed lowers the internal validity, thereby causing the results of the study to be invalid and inaccurate.In other circumstances, the experimenters are exactly the ones creating venues for extraneous variables to affect experimentations. Like the Placebo effect’s consequence, Experimenter Effect decreases internal validity in such a way that the extraneous variable causes changes in the dependent variable, not the independent variable of the experiment. This happens when the experimenters behave in a certain manner when dealing with participants (Hansen & Myers, 2002, p. 198).This may trigger participants to respond in a particular way between or among treatment conditions in order to fulfill the experimenters’ non-verbal cues. Fortunately, this effect may be controlled through a method called Double-blind experiment, say Hansen and Myer. This technique—when combined with consistency of instructions and processes, and objectivity of observations—can prevent the decrease in internal validity for both the experimenters and participants are not aware or are â€Å"blinded† with regard to the treatment condition they are handling or partaking, respectively (2002, p. 02).Since both parties have no idea on the nature of the treatment conditions they are assigned to, no bias or extraneous variables shall therefore arise and results produced shall be correct. For instance, it is deemed that caffeine keeps individuals alert and awake. This may be fu rther tested through an experiment, with a hypothesis which states that caffeine can improve night driving for tired drives.The independent variable here is the presence or absence of caffeine in the coffee drank by the participants while the dependent variable is their performance in a car-racing video game, specifically their recorded speed after three laps. In order for both the experimenters and the participants to respond without bias, the Double-blind Method can be applied. Given that coffee does ward off drowsiness and stimulate attentiveness, what remains to be critical is the effect of caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee on performance.Since the participants do not actually know if the coffee they are to drink has caffeine in it or not, they cannot behave based on what they think is expected from them. Likewise, the experimenters shall not be able to give indications or implications regarding the nature of the treatment condition the participants are in since they are also unaware of this. Thus, if the participants performed better subsequent to drinking caffeinated coffee or vice versa, experimenters will be sure that the presence or absence of coffee is responsible for this and not an extraneous variable.

Crime in uk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Crime in uk - Essay Example The root cause of cult of celebrity is the deep-seated human desire to appear inspirational, famous and strong to lead ordinary people and attain personal satisfaction and fulfillment for belonging in the class of celebrities (Walker and Smith 2002). According to social identity theory, people identify themselves by their social groups which they belong and judge others by the memberships to the groups. Celebrity worship originated in 1880s since inventors, scholars and political leaders were perceived as cultural heroes and people were celebrated for being famous in the society (Walker and Smith 2002). Accordingly, the emergence of mass media technologies in 1920s and popularity of the entertainment industry shifted the cult of celebrity from character of the individual to personality of the individual (Walker and Smith 2002). Another factor that contributed to the popularity of cult of celebrity was the decline in morality due to decline in organised religion. These fixations of public personality distort the behaviour of individuals since millions are obsessed with famous celebrities such as Nicole Kidman and Tom Hanks (Walker and Smith 2002). A survey conducted among teachers in primary and secondary schools in UK concluded that cult of celebrity was affecting children’s expectations and aspirations in life since many teachers believed that their children want to be famous (Rojek 2001). The cult is producing a younger generation that believes educational achievements and hard work are not essential in attaining success in life. In this case, children will grow up with low self-esteem, sense of failure and alienation due to relative deprivation. Children idolise themselves with popular celebrities such as football stars, popular musicians and actors. The cult of celebrities is a widespread obsession, worship and idolatry on

Jazz documentaries, racism and segregation Essay

Jazz documentaries, racism and segregation - Essay Example One of most popular documentaries on Swing Jazz was released during 2000. The name of this documentary was Jazz and directed by Ken Burns. This documentary was broadcasted in a series of 10 episodes and offered information regarding the chronological history of jazz and its prominent musicians. The documentary studies various aspects of  jazz,  including drugs and  racial segregation (Burns, 2000). Racial segregation was one of the most serious issues during the peak popularity of Swing Jazz. Although, the Black community had contributed greatly in World War I and II, the society continued to discriminate against them. Even in jazz, the musicians as well as the audience during a jazz performance  was  seated separately.   â€Å"Due to the racism found in many states, clubs throughout the country were often segregated. Just a few bands were racially mixed, of which Benny Goodman’s was possibly the first† (Swing and Racism, 2015). Part 7 of documentary and chapter 18, â€Å"These Things cant happen† offers bleak information about the Black soldiers, who fought to defend the ideals of their country, liberty and equality. Swing and Racism observes: â€Å"Hollywood films handled the race issue by including the African-American swing jazz band performances in films such a way that these sections could be easily removed from the movie reels that were to be distributed to Southern States without disturbing the storyline† (Swing and Racism,

Minnesota Curriculum Integration Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Minnesota Curriculum Integration - Assignment Example The faculty and the advisers are keen in the undergraduate curriculum since they work under the set and existing structures (Thurlow, 50). One of the structures that are emphasized a lot is the academic planning for the student in addition to the issues that face the student when studying. The executive leadership plays a major role in teaching the faculty and advisers on how they can study abroad and still emphasize student to partner with them abroad. Since the institution is interested in long-term impacts through the transformation in the undergraduate curriculum, they work for it through structures that are followed by the advisers, faculty and the learners (Nussbaumer, 40). They still work to ensure that they can get the behaviors concerning the student studying abroad and how the institution will be depicted internationally. The executives of the institution are administrators, vice chancellors, vice provost, vice president, the directors and core curriculum team. They work together to make sure that the goals set are achieved within the stipulated time (Mitton, 45). For the purpose of curriculum integration, the institution follows the principles set in along with discipline that is equipped to the learners. The set structures which exist are part and parcel of the institution model where they are followed to make sure that the student will benefit and study abroad without fear. One of the goals of Minnesota curriculum integration is to make changes in the institution, making sure that innovation is achieved where they are going to partner with others. Additionally, the goal of curriculum integration is to make sure that faculty or the advisers that are in abroad create well-educated learners and global citizens that will contribute positively in the national development (Hallinger, 32). Another goal is to make sure more increased scholarship abroad is achieved.

Health care marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Health care marketing - Essay Example Additionally, the health care institution should work to maintain a good brand name among the locals. The primary aim of this factor is to capture the external environment, which consists of the patients. This offers the health institution with an external insight of its brand in terms of marque image, brand personality, and brand familiarity.  Furthermore, the health facility should take into account innovation as a major factor for its marketing strategy. Innovation should take place in all departments of the hospital. This will increase the overall margins of the health facility and develop a new mindset to its patients. Secret shoppers or mystery shoppers are people hired by other rival organizations or business to spy on the progress of another business entity. The familiarity of secret shoppers is not common in many organizations since organizations set their own targets to achieve as opposed to benchmarking with other rival businesses. Mystery shoppers are popular in healthcare institutions equally to other business. This is because they aim to evaluate how healthcare is delivered in healthcare organizations and aim to correct important information and procedures that can be adapted in rival healthcare

Methods to measure gene expression in mammalian cells in vitro and in Essay

Methods to measure gene expression in mammalian cells in vitro and in vivo - Essay Example This method is based on suppression PCR technique that is a combination of normalization and subtraction in one procedure. The normalisation technique would equalize cDNA abundance in the target population while the subtraction step excludes the sequences that are common between the target and driver populations. 5 The two type of real – time PCR are the molecular beacon and SYBR Â ® Green method. SYBR Â ® Green method is the first method that was used in real – time PCR wherein it binds to double – stranded and when this would get excited, would emit light. On the other hand, molecular beacon utilizes a reporter probe that is wrapped to the hairpin.9 Involves mRNA isolation and hybridisation. mRNA is extracted and purified from the cells. To proceed with electrophoresis, mRNA is loaded to the gel. The current is allowed to pass through the gel and mRNA will move away from the negative electrode. To visualize mRNA, Flourescent dye is used as a stain followed by UV lighting. RNA is then transferred to a membrane from the gel electrically or through capillary action using a high – salt solution. RNA fragment that is in question is incubated with the blot and to remove the probe, the blot is then washed. Developmental step follows.10 A method to analyse comprehensively patterns of gene expression.8 mRNA is isolated from the sample. A small chunk of sequence is then extracted and these small pieces are sequenced together forming a long chain. These chains are cloned into a vector that can be taken up by bacteria. These chains are sequenced using a modern high. The data is then processed with computer in order to count small tags sequence.13 This method works at the 3 terminal portions of mRNAs by systemic amplification and resolution on DNA sequencing gel fragments. Primers are anchored and are designed to bind to 5 boundary of the poly-A tails for the reverse transcription.

Phonetics Case Essay Example for Free

Phonetics Case Essay Introduction The aim of this thesis is to give a systematic description of some aspects of English morphophonemic. The thesis falls into 2 chapters: The first chapter, which is an introduction, presents a short sketch of the title, the problem, the purpose of the study,phonological rules. The second chapter is devoted to some of the basic concepts required in the study of morphophonemic. It starts with various definitions of morpheme, allomorph. The thesis ends with some conclusions, a list of bibliography. Morphophonemic Analysis designates the analytic procedures whereby paradigms with phonological alternations are reduced to underlying representations and phonological rules. The term morphophonemic analysis has a now obscure origin. In the 1940s and 1950s, many phonologists worked with a theory in which (roughly) all neutralizing rules were assumed to apply before all allophonic rules. This in effect divided the phonology into two components: a neutralizing component, whose units were called morphophonemes, and a non-neutralizing component, which dealt with phonemes and allophones. This bifurcated-phonology theory is widely considered untenable today, but  morphophonemics remains a useful term for characterizing the study of neutralizing phonological rules as they apply in paradigms. When we conduct morphophonemic analysis, we seek to establish a connection between data and theory. The theory in question is that morphemes are stored in the lexicon in an invariant phonemic form, are strung together by morphological and syntactic rules, and are then converted to their surface forms by a sequence of phonological rules (often neutralizing), applied in a particular order. The purpose of morphophonemic analysis is to discover a set of underlying forms and ordered rules that are consistent with the data; and the payoff is that seemingly complex patterns are often reduced to simplicity. Morphophonemic analysis may be contrasted with phonemic analysis. Phonemic analysis is a more limited form of phonological analysis that seeks only to discover the non-neutralizing (allophonic) rules of the phonology. In phonemic analysis, only the distribution and similarity of the phones is examined. Therefore, the data need not be grouped in paradigms, but need only comprise a sufficiently large and representative set of words. Like phonemic analysis, morphophonemic analysis can be pursued with a systematic method. The main purpose of my work consists in making exact definition of a phoneme and allophone and be able to distinguish them. To understand what is morphophonemic?   Problems of my work are: morphophonemic and morphophonological rules, types of morphophonological changes, relation between phonology and morphophonology, isolation forms, rule ordering, morphophonology and orthography. Morphophonology (also morphophonemics, morphonology) is a branch of linguistics which studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic processes. Its chief focus is the sound changes that take place in morphemes (minimal meaningful units) when they combine to form words. Morphophonological analysis often involves an attempt to give a series of formal rules that successfully predict the regular sound changes occurring in the morphemes of a given language. Such a series of rules  converts a theoretical underlying representation into a surface form that is actually heard. The units of which the underlying representations of morphemes are composed are sometimes called morphophonemes. The surface form produced by the morphophonological rules may consist of phonemes (which are then subject to ordinary phonological rules to produce speech sounds or phones), or else the morphophonological analysis may bypass the phoneme stage and produce the phones itself. Morphop honemes and morphophonological rules When morphemes combine, they influence each others sound structure (whether analyzed at a phonetic or phonemic level), resulting in different variant pronunciations for the same morpheme. Morphophonology attempts to analyze these processes. A languages morphophonological structure is generally described with a series of rules which, ideally, can predict every morphophonological alternation that takes place in the language. An example of a morphophonological alternation in English is provided by the plural morpheme, written as -s or -es. Its pronunciation alternates between [s], [z], and [É ªz], as in cats, dogs, and horses respectively. A purely phonological analysis would most likely assign to these three endings the phonemic representations /s/, /z/, /É ªz/. On a morphophonological level, however, they may all be considered to be forms of the underlying object //z//, which is a morphophoneme. The different forms it takes are dependent on the segment at the end of the morpheme to which it attaches – these dependencies are described by morphophonological rules. (The behaviour of the English past tense ending -ed is similar – it can be pronounced [t], [d] or [É ªd], as in hoped, bobbed and added.) Note that the plural suffix -s can also influence the form taken by the preceding morpheme, as in the case of the words leaf and knife, which end with [f] in the singular, but have [v] in the plural (leaves, knives). On a morphophonological level these morphemes may be analyzed as ending in a morphophoneme //F//, which becomes voiced when a voiced consonant (in this case the //z// of the plural ending) is attached to it. This rule may be written symbolically as: /F/ - [ÃŽ ±voice] / __ [ÃŽ ±voice]. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pipes (| |) are often used to indicate a morphophonemic rather than phonemic representation. Another common convention is double slashes (// //), as  above, implying that the transcription is more phonemic than simply phonemic. Other conventions sometimes seen are double pipes (|| ||) and curly brackets ({ }). Types of morphophonological changes Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems of morphophonemics. Examples of complex morphophonological systems include: 1. Sandhi, the phenomenon behind the English examples of plural and past tense above, is found in virtually all languages to some degree. Even Mandarin, which is sometimes said to display no morphology, nonetheless displays tone sandhi, a morphophonemic alternation. 2. Consonant gradation, found in some Uralic languages such as Finnish, Estonian, Northern Sà ¡mi, and Nganasan. 3. Vowel harmony, which occurs in varying degrees in languages all around the world, notably Turkic languages. 3. Ablaut, found in English and other Germanic languages. Ablaut is the phenomenon wherein stem vowels change form depending on context, as in English sing, sang, sung. Relation between phonology and morphophonology Until the 1950s, many phonologists assumed that neutralizing rules generally applied before allophonic rules. Thus phonological analysis was split into two parts: a morphophonological part, where neutralizing rules were developed to derive phonemes from morphophonemes; and a purely phonological part, where phones were derived from the phonemes. Since the 1960s (in particular with the work of the generative school, such as Chomsky and Halles The Sound Pattern of English) many linguists have moved away from making such a split, instead regarding the surface phones as being derived from the underlying morphophonemes (which may be referred to using various terminology) through a single system of (morpho)phonological rules. The purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic analysis is to produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appear on the surface to be complicated patterns. In purely phonemic analysis the data is just a set of words in a language, while for the purposes of morphophonemic analysis the words must be considered in grammatical paradigms to take account of the underlying morphemes. It is postulated that morphemes are recorded in the speakers lexicon in an invariant (morphophonemic) form, which, in a given environment, is converted by rules into a surface form. The analyst attempts  to present as completely as possible a system of underlying units (morphophonemes) and a series of rules that act on them, so as to produce surface forms consistent with the linguistic data. Isolation forms The isolation form of a morpheme is the form in which that morpheme appears in isolation (when not subject to the effects of any other morpheme). In the case of a bound morpheme, such as the English past tense ending -ed, it will generally not be possible to identify an isolation form, since such a morpheme does not occur in isolation. It is often reasonable to assume that the isolation form of a morpheme provides its underlying representation. For example, in some American English, plant is pronounced [plà ¦nt], while planting is [ˈplà ¦nÉ ªÃ…‹], where the morpheme plant- appears in the form [plà ¦n]. Here the underlying form can be assumed to be //plà ¦nt//, corresponding to the isolation form, since rules can be set up to derive the reduced form [plà ¦n] from this (while it would be difficult or impossible to set up rules that would derive the isolation form [plà ¦nt] from an underlying //plà ¦n//). This is not always the case, however; sometimes the isolation form itself is subject to neutralization that does not apply to some other instances of the morpheme. For example, the French word petit (small) is pronounced in isolation without the final [t] sound, although in certain derived forms (such as the feminine petite) the [t] is heard. If the isolation form were adopted as the underlying form, the information that there is a final t would be lost, and it would be hard to explain the appearance of the t in the inflected forms. Rule ordering Morphophonological rules are generally considered to apply in a set order. This means that the application of one rule may sometimes either prevent or enable the application of another rule provided the rules are appropriately ordered. If the ordering of two rules is such that the application of the first rule can have the effect of making it possible to apply the second, then the rules are said to be in feeding order. For example, if a language has an apocope rule (A) which deletes a final vowel, and a cluster reduction rule (CR) that reduces a final consonant cluster, then the rules are in feeding order if A precedes CR, since the application of A can enable application of CR (for example, a word ending /-rpa/ is not itself subject  to CR, since the consonant cluster is not final, but if A is applied to it first, leaving /-rp/, then CR can apply). Here rule A is said to feed rule CR. If the rules are ordered such as to avoid possible feeding (in this case, if CR applies before A) then they are said to be in counter-feeding order. On the other hand, if rules are ordered such that the application of the first rule can have the effect of preventing application of the second, then the rules are said to be in bleeding order. For example, if a language has an epenthesis rule (E) that inserts a /w/ before certain vowels, and a vowel deletion rule (D) that deletes one of two consecutive vowels, then the rules are in bleeding order if E precedes D, since the application of E can prevent application of D (for example, a word containing /-iu-/ would be subject to D, but if E is applied to it first, leaving /-iwu-/, then D can no longer apply). Here rule E is said to bleed rule D. If the rules are ordered such as to avoid possible bleeding (in this case, if D applies before E) then they are said to be in counter-bleeding order. The terminology of feeding and bleeding is also applied to other linguistic rules, such as those of historical sound changes. Morphophonology and orthography The principle behind alphabetic writing systems is that the letters (graphemes) represent phonemes. However in many orthographies based on such systems the correspondences between graphemes and phonemes are not exact, and it is sometimes the case that certain spellings better represent a words morphophonological structure rather than the purely phonological. An example of this is that the English plural morpheme is written -s regardless of whether it is pronounced as /s/ or /z/; we write cats and dogs, not dogz. The above example involves active morphology (inflection), and morphophonemic spellings are common in this context in many languages. Another type of spelling that can be described as morphophonemic is the kind that reflects the etymology of words. Such spellings are particularly common in English; examples include science /saÉ ª/ vs. unconscious /ÊÆ'/, prejudice /prÉ›/ vs. prequel /priË /, sign /saÉ ªn/ signature /sÉ ªÃ‰ ¡n/, nation /neÉ ª/ vs. nationalism /nà ¦/, and special /spÉ›/ vs. species /spiË /. Conclusions according to this chapter Morphophonology (also morphophonemics, morphonology) is a branch of linguistics which studies: 1. The phonological structure of morphemes. 2. The combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which happen when they are combined. 3. The alternative series which serve a morphological function. Examples of a morphophonological alternatives in English include these distinctions: Plurals -es and -s, as in bus, buses, vs. bun, buns. Plural of -f is -ves, as in leaf, leaves. Different pronunciations for the past tense marker -ed. English, having lost its inflection, does not have much morphophonology. Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems, e.g., consonant gradation. A morphophonemic rule has the form of a phonological rule, but is restricted to a particular morphological environment. Morphophonemic rules are sensitive to their environment, unlike phonological rules. Whenever morphological information is required to specify the environment for an allophonic rule, the rule is morphophonemic. The prefix /in-/ has the allomorphs [il] and [ir]: /in-/ + responsible irresponsible /in-/ + logical illogical Therefore, there must be a morphophonemic rule which determines the allomorphs [il] and [ir] of the prefix /in-/. The purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic analysis is to produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appear on the surface to be complicated patterns. When morphemes are clustered or grouped in words than changes in the phonological structures of these words occur. Such changes are called morphophonemic changes. Assuming that we allow phonological rules to apply in sequence, we can cycle through them using the output of the first rule as the input to the second. For many cases in the data set, at most one phonological rule introduces a structural change. But in cog, tail, or comb we see a single derivation that involves both rules. Furthermore, such cases are not rare in English. Any word that begins with a voiceless stop and contains a vowel that precedes a voiced consonant will require the application of both rules. We use cog as an illustrative example: Allophone Central to the concept of the phoneme is the idea that it may be pronounced in many different ways. In English (BBC pronunciation) we take it for granted that the r sounds in ‘ray’ and ‘tray’ are â€Å"the same sound† (i.e. the same phoneme), but in reality the two sounds are very different – the r in ‘ray’ is voiced and non-fricative, while the r sound in ‘tray’ is voiceless and fricative. In phonemic transcription we use the same symbol r for both, but we know that the allophones of r include the voiced nonfricative sound É ¹ and the voiceless fricative one . In theory a phoneme can have an infinite number of allophones, but in practice for descriptive purposes we tend to concentrate on a small number that occur most regularly. Phoneme This is the fundamental unit of phonology, which has been defined and used in many different ways. Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units (phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d a group of voiceless fricatives f, ÃŽ ¸, s, ÊÆ', h, and so on. An important question in phoneme theory is how the analyst can establish what the phonemes of a language are. The most widely accepted view is that phonemes are contrastive and one must find cases where the difference between two words is dependent on the difference between two phonemes: for example, we can prove that the difference between ‘pin’ and ‘pan’ depends on the vowel and that i and are different phonemes. Pairs of words that differ in just one phoneme are known as minimal pairs. We can establish the same fact about p and b by citing ‘pin’ and ‘bin’. Of course, you can only start doing commutation tests like this when you have a provisional list of possible phonemes to test, so some basic phonetic analysis must precede this stage. Other fundamental concepts used in phonemic analysis of this sort are complementary distribution, free variation, distinctive feature and allophone. Different analyses of a language are possible: in the case of English some phonologists claim that there are only six vowel phonemes, others that there are twenty or more (it depends on whether you count diphthongs and long vowels as single phonemes or as combinations of two phonemes). It used to be said that learning the  pronunciation of a language depended on learning the individual phonemes of the language, but this â€Å"building-block† view of pronunciation is looked on no wadays as an unhelpful oversimplification. Phonemics When the importance of the phoneme became widely accepted, in the 1930s and 40s, many attempts were made to develop scientific ways of establishing the phonemes of a language and listing each phoneme’s allophones; this was known as phonemics. Nowadays little importance is given to this type of analysis, and it is considered a minor branch of phonology, except for the practical purpose of devising writing systems for previously unwritten languages. Conclusion: An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A phone is one of many possible sounds in the languages of the world. Phonemics a branch of linguistic analysis involving the study of phonemes, the structure of a language in terms of phonemes. General conclusion Morphophonemics, in linguistics, study of the relationship between morphology and phonology. Morphophonemics involves an investigation of the phonological variations within morphemes, usually marking different grammatical functions; e.g., the vowel changes in â€Å"sleep† and â€Å"slept,† â€Å"bind† and â€Å"bound,† â€Å"vain† and â€Å"vanity,† and the consonant alternations in â€Å"knife† and â€Å"knives,† â€Å"loaf† and â€Å"loaves.† The ways in which the morphemes of a language are variously represented by phonemic shapes can be regarded as a kind of code. This code is the morphophonemic system of the language. The morphophonemics of English is never so simple. There are always many instances of two or more morphemes represented by the same phonemic shape, and there are always cases in which a single morpheme is represented now by one phonemic shape, now by another. Therefore the morphophonemics of English is never trivial. Literature: 1. Hayes, Bruce (2009). Morphophonemic Analysis Introductory Phonology, pp. 161–185. Blackwell. 2. R. Jakobson, C. G. Fant, and M. Halle, Preliminaries to Speech Analysis, Fundamentals of Language (Mouton and Company, The Hague, 1956). 3. P. Roach (2004). â€Å"English Phonetics and Phonology†, Cambridge. 4. www.wikipedia.ru 5. www.sil.org 6. www.msu.edu